Khiva – ALL I NEED IS MY PASSPORT

Archeological Sites Around Khiva

May 102026

May 9, 2026

Toprak-kala

I would love to share the historical lineage of this area, but it gets incredibly complicated with more conquests than you can imagine, so we will stick with the basics here.

The archaeological site of Toprak-kala (1st-4th centuries CE) was discovered in 1938. Toprak-kala had a population of around 3,000 people and was the principal city of one of the local dynasties. Established by the Khwarazmian-speaking people who inhabited a large oasis region on the Amu Darya River delta.

The Toprak-kala site (translates as ‘the earthen fortress’ or ‘the dusty fortress’) took the form of a rectangle and was surrounded by walls 65 feet tall and 39 feet thick with numerous square towers. All the buildings in Toprak-kala were made of large mud bricks. It is assumed that the Khorezmians possessed specialized architectural knowledge that allowed them to construct highly durable structures from ordinary clay that still remain after many centuries of use. They reinforced their buildings with small rocks found in the desert, and the river sand they used absorbed moisture, keeping the rooms dry.

The northwestern part of the fortress was occupied by the ruler’s large palace.

In the center is the remains of a very large temple of fire.

The residential part was divided symmetrically by a main street with residential blocks on each side. Each block consisted of an uninterrupted complex of residential rooms, without any division into separate houses. The number of rooms in one such block might reach 200.

I walked through this little door

And I found this

In the 5th century, it appears that the people left the city, and the site was converted into a large necropolis with numerous ossuary burials. There are two thoughts as to why. The first was for political reasons, the second was that the Amu Darya River changed its course, thus their water supply was gone.

Excavation of Toprak-Kalar revealed unique finds of the ancient Khorezmian language at four buildings. Archeologists found 116 documents written in black ink on wooden tablets and leather rolls. Though not yet fully deciphered, they have been identified as economic documents from the palace archive. Three of the documents found had precise dates: 207, 231, and 232 CE.

The monument ranks among the oldest cultural sites in Central Asia and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

In 2003–2007, archaeological excavations were carried out at the Toprak-Kala site and at the Meshekli caravanserai and its surroundings. As a result, one of the oldest Zoroastrian temples in Central Asia was discovered.

Fragments of ossuaries, possibly Zoroastrians’ canopic jars, were found within Toprak Kala.

Ayaz-Kala

Ayaz-Kala is a complex archaeological site, consisting of three phases of fort construction located on the edge of the Kyzylkum Desert.

The fortresses were built from the 4th century BCE to the 7th century CE, also by the Khwarazmian-speaking people, with each fortress designated as Ayaz Kala 1, Ayaz Kala 2, and Ayaz Kala 3.

Ayaz-Kala was part of a defensive line protecting agricultural settlements against nomadic raiders, including the Saka people from the northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe.

Ayaz Kala 1, the highest of the three, was constructed in the 4th century BCE on a flat section of a limestone hill that commanded a view of the surrounding plains. The fortress had been used for over five hundred years.

Ayaz Kala 1

The structure is about 600 x 500 feet. The outer walls used a double-wall construction, with the inner and outer walls separated by a six-foot-wide arched corridor.

Ayaz Kala 1 between the two exterior walls

The roof of the corridor formed a platform on which archers and other defenders could stand. The upper part of the outer wall had slits through which the defenders could fire their arrows.

Ayaz Kala 1 and the slits for arrows

There is no evidence of any permanent buildings having been constructed inside the fort, even though the space within the fortress is quite large. There is, however, evidence of a water storage tank to store collected water.

For this reason, the fortress may have acted as a refuge for local residents rather than housing a resident garrison, permanent residents, or a palace complex. Presumably, occupants of the fort and those who sought to take refuge within its walls could have used temporary dwellings such as yurts.

Ayaz Kala 1

Since the site has not been systematically excavated or scientifically dated, it is not known when Ayaz Kala 2 was constructed, though it is thought to be the most modern of the three kalas. Estimates of when different parts of the kala were built range from the 4th to the 8th centuries CE. The palace-fort complex could have remained in use until, say, the Mongol invasions of the 13th century CE.

Ayaz Kala 2

It is the smallest of all of the sites, leading to the theory that it was a fortified residence of a feudal landlord.

Ayaz Kala 3, a garrisoned fort, was the largest of the three kalas. It was surrounded by agricultural fields. There is evidence of old farmsteads and field boundaries. Kala 3’s location would have made it far more accessible than Kala 1 in an emergency, such as a sudden attack. Kala 3 contains a fortified building in its northeast corner that dates to the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. The outer walls may have been built later, between the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. This kala, located as it were at the edge of the plains, would have complemented kala 1 in defending the area and providing refuge.

Ayaz Kala 3

Ayaz Kala 3 was constructed in the shape of a parallelogram with square towers at each corner and rectangular towers defending each side. The entrance was in the middle of the western wall and was defended by a strong defensive tower.

Regrettably, as was the case with most archaeologists of the era, their interest seemed to be in making discoveries and then abandoning the sites, leaving them unprotected and exposed to harsh environmental conditions and unregulated foot and animal traffic. The methods some used included bulldozers. The excavated ruins have become badly eroded over the past thirty years.

A touch of green in a very barren location.

An abandoned camel saddle

Itchan Kala

Khiva, Uzbekistan

May 102026

May 8, 2026

Khiva, Uzbekistan

To give you an idea of how much history is in this area, Khiva celebrated its 2500th anniversary in 1997. Like so much of history, the name of Khiva is a mystery. Also, like so much history, many contradictory stories have been told to explain it.

Khiva is split into two parts. The outer town, called Dichan Kala, was formerly protected by a wall with 11 gates. The inner town, or Itchan Kala, is encircled by brick walls, whose foundations are believed to have been laid in the 10th century. Present-day crenelated walls date back to the late 17th century and reach a height of 32 feet. This is where we spent the day.

Entering Itchan Kala

Despite being a World Heritage Site, it is also a living city. There are approximately 250 people living within the walls, and I am sure they are all owners of the souvenir shops that line every street of Itchan Kala.

Kaltaminor Minaret

You will see the Kaltaminor Minaret even before you enter the walls.

Kaltaminor was created by Muhammad Amin Bahadur Khan as the largest and tallest minaret in the Muslim world. According to its plan, the height of the minaret was to be some 260 feet tall, and its diameter was to decrease sharply as the height increased, which was supposed to increase the stability of the minaret.

Construction began in 1852 and stopped abruptly in 1855, when Muhammad Amin Khan died in a battle.

Mohammad Amin Khan Madrassah

The first building you come upon is the Mohannad Amin Khan Madrassah, which now serves as a hotel. Built in 1846, it is made of baked bricks, and the walls are nearly 5 feet thick. The madrasah has 2 floors, 130 rooms, and, according to historical records, 260 students studied there at the same time. It became a hotel in the 1970s.

Repairmen hard at work

Juma Mosque

The Juma Mosque is the cathedral mosque and the Friday mosque of Khiva. According to the Arab geographer Mudaddasly, the mosque dates back to the 10^thcentury. However, another historian says that it was built later. There are dates over the entrance door saying 1778-1782.

There are 213 carved wooden columns, the majority of which were carved from tree trunks in the 18^th and 19^th centuries. A few of the oldest date back to the 10^thcentury.

The Harem in Konya Ark

The highlight and most stunning of all the buildings that I saw is the Harem area of Konya Ark.

The origins of Konya Ark can be traced back to the 17^th century when the khans began to build their own fortified residences within the walls of Ichan-kala. However, the structure that I saw dates mainly from the 19^th century.

The centerpiece was the divan khana, an official audience hall also known as the salamkhana, where the khan received diplomatic guests, dispensed justice, and consulted with dignitaries.

There were also workshops to make weapons, a palace kitchen, stables, a winter and summer mosque, and even a prison.

A painted ceiling

Five almost identically designed living quarters served the khan and his four principal wives. Opposite them were the more modest quarters for the concubines and female servants.

The back wall of the bedroom chamber

The harem was composed of both legal wives and slave concubines. The khan had four legal wives, who were obliged to be free Muslim women. Aside from his legal wives, enslaved women were acquired from slave markets and were obliged to be non-Muslims since free Muslim women could not be slaves. The enslaved girls were initially given as servants to the khan’s mother. She provided them with an education to make them suitable for concubinage, after which some of them were selected to be the concubines to the khan. The slave girls were purchased for the harem at about the age of twelve and stayed there until about the age of thirty. Only the khan’s legal wives were allowed to give birth to his children, and the slave concubines who conceived were given forced abortions

The Wooden throne of the khan, built in 1816, was gilded in silver and traditionally sat where this replica sits today. It was carted off by the Russians to the Hermitage at the time of their taking over Uzbekistan. The Uzbeks are still trying to negotiate its return.

The East Gate

In the 17th century, Khiva began to develop as a slave market. For several centuries, the cities of Bukhara and Khiva were known as major centers of the slave trade, and the Bukhara slave trade, alongside the neighboring slave trade in Khiva, has been referred to as the “slave capitals of the world”. During the first half of the 19th century, around 30,000 Persians and an unknown number of Russians were enslaved there before being sold. A large part of them were involved in the construction of buildings in the walled Itchan Kala. The slave trade ended under the Russians in 1873.